This will contain ABSTRACTS and a BIBLIOGRAPHY (to be updated as I go along). 

Abstracts will contain also major literary histories (A) and theories or categories (B).

ABSTRACTS;

(A) Literary History: Prototypes

I will use the CAMBRIDGE LITERARY HISTORY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE (CHAL), 1994-2004 as a recent prototype for periodization:

I.     1590-1820

II. 1820-1865

III. 1860-1920

IV. 1910-1950

V. 1940-1990

VI. 1990-2020

(The last chapter added as an update by me.)  The multivolume CHAL (2004) not only covers more than any other variant, but it also links back to the older CHAL (1912) by Trent. It allows for comparisons, but it also reduces the variants of texts to 4 major groups: PROSE, VERSE, DRAMA, CRITICISM, which allows us to concentrate on PROSE.

Martin Schulze (1999) follows this prototype. But occasionally he also concentrates on short prose (which is my topic). And he also links his Literaturgeschichte to an earlier Swiss one by Henry Lüdeke (1952,1963). I myself come from the Schirmer/Esch school (1945, 1949, 1964, 1977). A friend of mine as a student has worked on the last edition. I studied with A. Esch.

To correct my German bias (helpful as an antidote to US exceptionalism) I have used, of course  Spiller (1948, 1954, 1963, 1974) and his bibliography (1974), Elliott (1988), and Burt (2004), the last being a chronology as a double corrective, rather than another variant. Historians of US Literature should learn from earlier assessments without repeating their errors. They should proceed from chronmology to  generalizations, from local to regional to national and beyond. 

One obvious contemporary revision would include to replace "American" by "US". There is a Latin America, due to Spanish colonialism. There is French colonialism, surviving in Lousiana. And a Dutch, reflected in the Knickerbocker School of New York. To study Chicano literature without the other competitors for the continent is provincial, To study Kate Chopin without knowing that she could read Maupassant in French, or to reading Washington Irving without his debt to Dutch painters and engravers is a national limitation. 

Here I have added outlines in CHAL Bercovitch 2004), CHAL (Trent 1912), not only to illustrate changes in  the literary canon (e.g. Longfellow vs. Melville), but also the changes in periodization ("Realism"). To learn from them.
I did this using the frame of broader cultural studies of the Birmingham school of Cultural Studies (R. Williams, S. Hall). By revising the history of short fiction (e.g. sketch stories) in a larger frame (PROSE) and the same time use frame CHAL, I hope to contribute to a change in literary historiography. To learn from one's ancestors. And to  connect with partners in social history and sociology. 

Links would be the concepts used.

(B) Categories and Theories

CAGE:

Categories from Immanuel Wallerstein (1998; with Balibar) 

CASE

1991 (mit Etienne Balibar): Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. Verso, London (dt. 1998): Rasse, Klasse, Nation. Argument, Hamburg

I: Der universelle Rassismus 23-86

...

2. W. "Ideologisches Spannungsverhältnisse im Kapitalismus: Universalismus vs. Sexismus und Rassismus" 39-48

Entstehung des Universalismus "Alle Menschen werden Brüder" 40-43 (nur Männer)

zwei Erklärungsweisen:

- ideengeschichtlich: aus Trias der monotheistischen Religionen (Aufgabe der Stammesgötter) Judentum, Islam, Christentum 40

> aufklärerisch: moralische Gleichheit und universale Menschenrechte USA, Frz Revolution 41

> globale Ausweitung aus den Zentren 421

- ökonomisch: aus endloser Akkumulation von Kapital = Verwandlung aller Dinge in Waren (Güter, Kapital, Arbeitskraft) 

> universalistische Ideologie, zur Vermarktung 42 [Coca Cola]

Zwei Konsequenzen:

- "Leistungsgesellschaft" (freie Bahn den Tüchtigen) [pursuit of happiness] = wirtschaftliche Effizienz

- "Chancengleichheit" statt ererbter Privilegien (Adel) 42 f

// Ideologie des Rassismus und Sexismus 43-47

- Rassismus aus genetischen Merkmalen (etwa Hautfarbe) oder sozialen (Religion, kulturelle Prägung, Sprachformen)

< Fremdenfeindlichkeit (Xenophobie) = physischer Ausschluss [Exklusion] der Barbaren // Bedarf an Arbeitskräften 45

> Ethnisierung der Arbeiterschaft 45 = hierarchisches System von Arbeitsleistungen und Vergütungen, flexibel 45

- Sexismus aus Haushaltsstrukturen der Lohnabhängigen = unbezahlte Arbeit von Hausfrauen + Alten und Jungen [Ageism] 46

> Abwertung der Arbeiten von Frauen, Jungen und Alten durch „Leistungsgesellschaft“ 47

Universalismus + Rassismus, Sexismus, Adultismus = zwei Seiten derselben Medaille 47-48

= Neigungen zum Extremismus auf beiden Seiten (leichter beim Rassismus, weil Universalismus institutionell gesichert ist);

doch beide funktionieren im Zick Zack der richtigen Dosierung bei Expansions- oder Kontraktionsphasen des Kapitalismus 48

II: Die historische Nation 87-140

...

4. W. "Die Konstruktion von Völkern: Rassismus, Nationalismus, Ethnizität" 87-106

Begriff "Volk" in der historisch orientierten Sozialwissenschaft 95-97 

< Ableitungen: genetisch, soziopolitisch, oder Werte, Normen 96 = Rassen, Nationen, ethnische Gruppen

> Funktionen: Sozialisation von Individuen, Aufrechterhaltung von Gruppensolidarität, "Identität" 97

Grund der Kategorien liegt in der historischen Struktur der kapitalistischen Weltwirtschaft: 

"Rasse" < horizontale Arbeitsteilung in der Weltwirtschaft (Antinomie von Zentrum-Peripherie) =

 Importe von Sklaven, Genozide, Immigranten = geographische Konzentrationen 99 

"Nation" < politischer Überbau dieses historischen Systems: die souveränen Staaten

Wettbewerbs-Resultate des Weltsystems = Vereinte Nationen etc.; verspätete Nationen wie Deutschland, Italien, Syrien ... 100

"ethnische Gruppe" < Entstehung von Haushaltsstrukturen innerhalb der Kapitalakkumulation (Kontingente von nicht 

entlohnter Arbeit wie bei Hausfrauen, Alten, Jugendlichen) 98 = Ethnisierung der Arbeiterschaft [Spaltung] 104

Konstruktion "Volk" aus Rasse, Nation, ethnischer Gruppe = ideologisch flexibel, ein Produkt der Weltwirtschaft 106

6. W. "Haushaltsstrukturen und die Formierung der Arbeitskraft in der kapitalistischen Weltwirtschaft" 141-53

Formierung (Reproduktion) der Arbeitskraft: zeitlich variabel, räumlich variabel, minimale Lohnkosten 132

- räumlich: gegen räumliche Verankerung der Arbitskrat [Deterritorialisierung] Umziehen 133 ["Betriebstreue"]

- zeitlich: nur partiellle Entlohnung bei steigender Prozentsatz von Lohnabhängigkeit weltweit ("Arbeitnehmer"]

- Lohnkosten: nach Ethnizität/Nationalität, und sozialem Geschlecht 134

Struktur: alle drei spannungsvoll: Territorialität, Partialität und Ideologie der "Chancengleichheit" 134

Alternativen zur vollstädnigen Ausdehnung der Warenform im Alltagsleben 134-8 [Kommerzialisierung, Amerikanisierung]

-----------------------------------------------

// = Widerspruch

Biologie. Grundwissen und Gesetze (2009)

München:Contact Verlag. 

a guide for students. Chapter 12 (314-41) explains Evolution:

12. Vielfalt und Evolution der Lebenwesen 314-41
1. Belege für die Ev 314-20
Morphologisch-anatomische Belege 314

HOMOLOGIE
"Homologe Organe lassen sich auf einen gemeinsamen Grundbauplan zurückführen, auch wenn sie infolge von Anpassung an verschiedene Funktionen ein recht unterschiedliches Aussehen haben können." 314
Oft lassen sich für solche Organe Entwicklungsreihen (Progressionsreihen) vom Einfachen zum Komplexeren aufstellen, es gibt aber auch die Rückbildung von Organen (Regressionsreihen). Aus Homologien kann man Rückschlüsse auf eine Stammverwandtschaft ziehen:"

Homologiekriterien sind
"a) Kriterium der Lage: Strukturen verschiedener Organismen sind homolog, wenn sie die gleiche Lage in einem vergleichbaren Gefügesystem einnehmen.
b) Kriterium der spezifischen Qualität: Wenn kompliziert gebaute Organe im Hinblick auf spezielle Merkmale auffallend übereinstimmen, sind sie trotz eventuell veränderter Lage homolog.
c) Kriterium der Stetigkeit (Kontinuität): Verschieden gelagerte oder in ihrer Gestalt stark abgewandelte Organe sind dann homolog, wenn sie über Zwischenformen verbunden sind, die einen gleitenden Übergang von einer Struktur zur anderen erkennen lassen.
Nach der Korrelationsregel findet sich bei verschiedenen Organismen noch andere homologe Organe, wenn ein Organ sich bereits als homolog erwiesen hat." 314 -5
Beipiel: Arm-Flügel-Flosse

ANALOGIE
"Anders als Homologien lassen Analogien keine Rückschlüsse auf eine Stammesverwandtschaft zu.
Analoge Organe können die gleiche Funktion und auch eine rein äußerliche Ähnlichkeit haben, aber sie weisen stets einen unterschiedlichen Grundbauplan auf. Die Ausbildung einer ähnlichen Gestalt infolge gleicher Funktion oder Lebensweise nennt man Konvergenz.
Ein Beispiel für analoge Organe sind die Ranken verschiedener Pflanzen .. die sich aus verschiedenen Grundorganen der Pflanze entwickelt haben können." 315

RUDIMENTE UND ATAVISMEN 316
"Rudimentäre Organe entstehen durch Rückbildung von Organen, deren ursprüngliche Funktion dabei normalerweise verloren geht.
Beispiele sind menschliche Steißbein (Reste des Schwanzes) oder die Weisheitszähne, die bei manchen Menschen überhaupt nicht mehr angelegt sind.
Von einem Atavismus (Rückschlag) spricht man, wenn bei Organismen plötzlich Merkmale auftreten, die im Laufe der Stammesgeschichte bereits verschwunden sind.
So kann man bei manchen Menschen eine sehr starke Ganzkörperbehaarung oder ein verlängertes, schwanzartiges Steißbein beobachten." 316

(Weitere Belege folgen: paläontologische, physiologische, biochemische und molekularbiologische 316-20)

Braudel (1966)

Braudel, Fernand. Las civilizaciones actuales. Estudio de historia económica y social. 1966

(= Le monde actuel. Histoire et civilisations.) Trad. J. Gomez Mendoza y G. Anes.

Madrid: Editorial Tecnos, 1966.

[ global survey social and economical, historical and economical, by continents.]

INTRODUCTION : chapters i-iii civilizations have four aspects: space, society, economy, collective mentality.

[ISLAM NEAR EAST iv-viii; AFRICA viii-ix; FAR EAST x-xv; EUROPE xvi-xix;
 LATIN AMERICA xx]

NORTH AMERICA xxi-xxiii; USA xxi-xxii = optimism; exceptionalism before 1929;

since then crisis

xxi The Balance of Opportunities 401-17 (to colonize between Spain, France, England)

1. Colonization and Independence (401-8)

- late-comer Raleigh, Pilgrim Fathers 1620; coast & harbors as opportunities.

- agricultural settler colony + naval trade 403 (second only to GB),

- Independence 405 and eliminating EU competition F-GB,Spain 405,

new mentality: liberty, equality (capitalism) competition + expansion 407 MAP 406

2. Conquest of the West (408-11)

- under the name of „Civilization“, always with the help of competitors

- under capitalist organization: homestead, land speculation, townships,

- under protestant sects, lack of clergy, emotional revivalism, "American way of life"

3. Industrialization and Urbanization (411-17)

- Population and Productivity TABLE 411 with rapid urbanization, aided by national railroads +

- Immigration 412 change to South- and East EU population, + cultural assimilation

- expansion - a) continental, b) Pacific; c) vertical = industrial and urban, +

cultural assimilation to Anglo-Saxon dominance: religious pluralism, laicism, liberalism

xxii Shadows and difficulties of the Past 417-58

1. The Negro Problem [Racism] 418; geographical and historical burden:

- Civil War and industrial reconstruction

- Advances for Blacks, but in Deep South, inequality remain 417

2. Capitalist concentration: Trusts and weak State interventions result in oligopolies 420:

- analysis of national market conditions under monopolization versus labor unions 421;

- social policies as limited state compensation, growth of national government; propaganda

3. US and the World 429-36; abandons isolationism from EU, repeats interventions 1917, 1941

- Hegemony: economic, political, military world-wide; Cold War confrontation 432

- American novels interpret US civilization: Hemingway, Faulkner, Steinbeck, Dos Passos 433

- USA 1962-65: JFK assassination, increasing violence; Cuba, Tonkin Gulf incident 436 ...

[BRITISH EMPIRE xxii Canada, Australia, NZ 442-57; THE OTHER EUROPE xxiv-xxv; Russia/USSR 471-92]

(my translation into English)

FRENZEL 1974

Frenzel, Elisabeth. Stoff- und Motivgeschichte. 1966. 2. Aufl. Berlin: E. Schmidt 1974.

Ihre Definitionen: 

Stoff = ein Motivkomplex aus Haupt- und Nebenmotiven, je nach Stellung und Funktion (z.B. Leitmotiv) zu unterscheiden

Motiv = besteht aus Zügen, einige ornamental oder klischiert "topoi") 7-13

Im Register (161-87) führt Frenzel folgende Motive auf (von mir nummeriert):

1) Einsiedler, Insel, Mißvergnügter, Sonderling

2) Bruderzwist, Eos, Fernidol, Kindesmörderin, Liebeskonflikt, Nebenbuhler, Vater-Sohn, Doppelgänger, Vatersuche, Verführer, Verlassene Frau, Verräter

3) Frau zwischen zwei Männern, Mann zwischen zwei Frauen, Freierprobe, Gattin, verleumdete, Mörder, gedungener

4) Arkadien, Bauer, Bedienter, femme fatale, Gold, Goldenes Zeitalter, Heimkehrer, Landschafts- und Örtlichkeitsmotiv, Leiden Christi, Picaro, Rebell, Situation, Teufelsbündner, Unterweltsfahrt, vanitas mundi, Wilder, Edler

Ihr entsprechen Stoffe wie Faust (Teufelsbündner), Romeo und Julia (Liebeskonflikt), Hamlet (Vater-Sohn), Tell (Rebell) usw. (ebenfalls im Register)

Das wirft zunächst einige Fragen auf:

Warum ist Christi Leiden kein Stoff, sondern ein Motiv? 

Warum ist vanitas mundi ein Motiv? (Frenzel illustriert es mit dem Schicksalsschlag)

Warum ist Bauer ein Motiv? Sind alle Berufe der Arbeitsteilung ein Motiv? Das Förster-Motiv, das Unternehmer-Motiv, das Bettler-Motiv ...

Wie verhält sich die Unterweltfahrt zum Örtlichkeitsmotiv? Oder die Insel?

Die Motiv-Liste ist offen, nur empirisch zu erweitern durch Vergleich verschiedener Kulturen und Künste (74), und im Stoff modifizieren sich Motive gegenseitig als Haupt- und Nebenmotive (die verleumdete Gattin und der gedungene Mörder). Zudem enthalten Motive verschiedene Züge (der verlassene Bauer). Es gab schon früher komplexere Klassifikationen (Stith Thompson 1955-66), und man hat nach 1974 versucht, neuere Theorien zu entwickeln (in Sollors 1993), ab gibt es nicht einen einfacheren Weg, Motive zu ordnen? 

Bis auf die Insel, die Situation und die Örtlichkeit beziehen sich alle aufgelisteten Motive auf menschliches Handeln. Auf dieses hat sich die Soziologie spezialisiert, mit vielen Theorien. Vor allem die Interaktions-Soziologie.

Wäre nicht mit dem Vorschlag von Norbert Elias, menschliche Interaktionen als Figurationen zu analysieren, geholfen? ( in: Was ist Soziologie? 1970, 2006). Auch Raymond Williams hat in Culture (1981) vorgeschlagen, menschliche Relationen in Kunstwerken als "deep form" zu betrachten, und gleichzeitig deren Weg dahin skizziert (166-67).

Hier ein Versuch für Kurzprosa. Für Short Stories, Sketch Stories, Einakter, Gemälde, Kammermusik, Ballett ...

1) Solo - keine Interaktion mit einer zweiten Person: der Einsiedler. Insel impliziert eine Robinsonade. Ein Mißvergügter oder ein Sonderling sondert sich ab von der Gesellschaft. Es gibt ein menschliches Umfeld, aber die Einzelfigur interagiert nicht mit ihm. Erweiterungen sind möglich: der Inselbewohner schickt eine Flaschenpost, der Eremit hinterlässt ein Testament.

2) Duo - Interaktion zweier Figuren. Paarung und Entzweiung wären die klarsten Beispiele. Imaginäre Erweiterungen wären Fernidol, Vatersuche, Teufelsbündner. Auch gesellschaftliche Erweiterungen wären möglich bei dem Liebeskonflikt (Paar gegen Eltern), Kindesmörderin (Bestrafung), Verräter (Gruppe).

3) Trio - das Dreieck, eine häufige Konflikt-Figuration. Sie eröffnet eine Wahlmöglichkeit. Die zusätzlichen Adjektive bei Frenzel "motivieren" oder implizieren eine der drei Figuren: den Vater, den Gatten, den Auftraggeber. Ein gesellschaftlicher Hintergrund ist bei allen Trios möglich.

4) Combo - das Ensemble der gesellschaftlichen Interaktionen tritt in den Vordergrund für ein Solo, ein Duo, ein Trio oder ersetzt sie ganz wie in Arkadien, Gold(suche), Goldenes Zeitalter und Situation. Bauer, Bedienter, femme fatale, Heimkehrer, Picaro, Rebell stehen allein gegen mehrere Figuren (Herren, Liebhaber, Familie, Opfer, Unterdrücker) oder einer gesellschaftlichen Situation gegenüber: Ausbeutung, Patriarchat, Diktatur. Das Leiden Christi ist eine besonders sakralisierte Opferrolle. Der Edle Wilde stellt eine ganze Gesellschaft in Frage. Imaginäre Erweiterungen sind auch hier möglich in der Interaktion mit Landschaften, Örtlichkeiten, mit der Unterwelt: Welten der Vorfahren, Toten, oder mit dem Schicksal, das einem die Eitelkeit des Lebens in der Welt klar machen soll. Oft Lernprozesse mit tödlichem Ausgang. Zusätzliche "Motivierungen" lassen sich viele für diese Konflikte finden.

Diese Gruppe würde auch Quartette mit einschließen: ein Liebespaar, ein Dienerpaar; zwei ethnische Paare; vier Freunde usw. Aber auch bei diesen Konfigurationen rücken gesellschaftliche Konflikte aus dem Hintergrund nach vorne (Class, Age, Gender, Ethnicity). 

Romane und Dramen entwickeln meist komplexere Figurationen bis zu fünfzig Figuren, von denen einige nie direkt interagieren. Manchmal bilden sie Gruppen. N. Elias entwickelte solche komplexe und flexible Figurationen (sie ändern sich während der Aktionen) am Beispiel von Spielmodellen (92-133).

Fußball. Und er fügte noch etwas hinzu: Figurationen setzen einen Blickpunkt voraus. Das Trio der verleumdeten Gattin kann aus ihrer Sicht oder der des Gatten oder des Verleumders präsentiert werden. Auch abwechselnd aus allen dreien. In moderneren Kurzgeschichten kann die verlassene Frau ganz aus der Sicht des kollektiven gesellschaftlichen Umfelds geschildert werden: das Dorf in "A Rose for Emily" (1931). Die Wahl und die Verflechtung der Blickpunkte überlagern die vier Figurationen und fügen ihnen eine weitere Motivierung hinzu: die des Erzählers oder Dramatikers. Auch sie haben in der Vergangenheit unsere soziologische Vorstellungskraft durch neue Konfigurationen zunehmend entmythologisiert (Williams 1981, 148-78).

LAKOFF, George. Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things (1987)

Lakoff 1987

a counter-model to Transformational Grammar (Chomsky); a semantics that links abstract concepts to the human body and its cognitive structures, incl: grammar

17. COGNITIVE SEMANTICS 269-303

What makes concepts meaningful (269-80)

Our conceptual system has a dual foundation in: image-schematic (A) and basic-level (B) concepts (269, 279):

A) Image Schemas (= kinesthetic, body-related concepts) 271-80:

1. The CONTAINER Schema 272, we experience our bodies both as containers and things in containers (e. g. rooms)

Structural elements: interior, boundary, exterior. (image schemas are structured)

2. The PART-WHOLE Schema 273, body (we are whole beings with parts we can manipulate)

Structural elements: a whole, parts, and a configuration (this schema is asymmetric)

3. The LINK Schema 274, body (our first link is the umbilical cord)

Structural elements: two entities, A and B, and LINK connecting them (basic logic: dependence and symmetry)

4. The CENTER-PERIPHERY Schema 274, we have centers (trunk) and peripheries (fingers, toes, hair)

Structural elements: An entity, a center, and a periphery (the periphery depends on the center, but not vice versa).

5. The SOURCE-PATH-GOAL Schema 275, every time we move somewhere ... to goal (or spatially to 'destination')

Structural elements: a starting point, a destination, a sequence of continuous locations connecting, and a direction

Metaphors map the physical-source domain of image-schemas into the abstract target domain of basic-level concepts (using Schema 5) 276-78

Samples: spatial destination - conceptual GOAL [e. g. start - beginnings, path - method, or travel - mind trip]

What is known about the nature of cognitive models (280-92) 

B) Our Conceptualizing Capacity uses mental spaces (with A) 280-84:

- to form symbolic structures (correlating basic-level and image-schematic concepts),

- to project metaphorically from structures in the physical domain to structures in abstract domains,

- to form complex concepts and general categories using image schemas as structuring devices (Cognitive Models such as ICMs).

1. Cognitive Models 281-84 structure mental spaces such as our immediate reality, fictional situations, past or future situations, hypothetical situations, abstract domains:

building complex cognitive models that structure our experience of space and our abstract domains of concepts and categories:

- categories (in general) are understood in terms of CONTAINER schemas,

- hierarchical structure in terms of PART-WHOLE schemas,

- relational structure in categories with terms of LINK schemas,

- radial structure in categories with terms of CENTER-PERIPHERY schemas,

- foreground-background structure with terms of FRONT-BACK schemas

- linear quantity scales with terms of UP-DOWN schemas and LINEAR ORDER schemas (283).

2. ICMs (Idealized Cognitive Models) 284-92 are such complex symbolic structures of basic types:

Image-schematic ICMs (above A 1-5) plus: 

Propositional ICMs 285 do not use imaginative devices, e. g. metaphors, metonymy, or mental imagery; either:

- simple: arguments + basic predicate (PART-Whole), or (forming complex propositions):

-scenario (or script): initial, a sequence of events, and a final state (A 5), a scenario (restaurant) + a concept (waiter) form CATEGORIES (A 1): 

- feature-bundle Categories: a classical taxonomy, a collection of properties (A 1), or

- radial Categories with a center (A 4), or,

- graded Categories: with fuzzy boundaries of interior /exterior (LINEAR scales), or, 

- -metaphoric and metonymic ICMs 288 both map from propositional or image-schematic models into a target domain: generally: "A 'stands for' B."

especially: PROTOTYPES 288-89 (= "A is the best example for B"): a typical case (metonymy), radial (A at the center), graded (A of degree 1),

 bundle (A has all the properties of the feature bundle); and other mixed cases.

-- symbolic. ICMs in Grammar (natural languages) 289-92

a) in lexical items: the grammatical category noun is a radial category with subcategories "as the name of a person, place, or thing" (prototypical nouns)

b) in grammatical constructions: hierarchical sentence structure (PART-WHOLE), head-and-modifier structures (CENTER-PERIPHERY), co-reference ... 

SUMMARY: „Given such view … we can represent grammatical constructions as ICMs. … The concept of a radial category also permits us to show regularities in the structure of grammar and the lexicon. Most words and morphemes have multiple meainings – meanings that are related to one another. These meanings can be seen as forming a radial category … Language is thus based on cognition. The structure of language uses the same devices used to structure cognitive models - image schemas, which are understood in terms of bodily functioning." 291 

Philosophic issues: general approaches (292-302)

such as meaning (292), understanding (292), truth (294), knowledge (297), and objectivity (301) all modified by cognitive semantics.

Summary (302-03)

preconceptual structures:

 basic level + image-schematic 

(from perception, mental imagery, 

and motor movement)

cognitive models: 

match up with preconceptual 

structures or import them via metaphor

conceptualizing capacity: 

acquires concepts, 

links them, understands our present concepts

and comes to understand even 

different conceptual systems.

Prototypes

(Addison 1712)

Addison „On the Pleasures of Imagination“ (Spectator # 417; June 28, 1712)

We may observe, that any single circumstance of

what we have formerly seen often raises up a whole

scene of imagery, and awakens numberless ideas

that before slept in the imagination ; such a parti-

cular smell or colour is able to fill the mind, on a

sudden, with the picture of the fields or gardens

where we first met with it, and to bring up into

view all the variety of images that once attended it.

Our imagination takes the hint, and leads us unex-

pectedly into cities or theatres, plains or meadows.

We may further observe, when the fancy thus re-

flects on the scenes that have passed in it formerly,

those which were at first pleasant to behold appear

more so upon reflection, and that the memory

heightens the delightfulness of the original. A

Cartesian would account for both these instances in

the following manner : —

The set of ideas which we received from such a

prospect or garden, having entered the mind at the

same time, have a set of traces, belonging to them

in the brain, bordering very near upon one another;

when, therefore, any one of these ideas arises in

the imagination, and consequently dispatches a flow

of animal spirits to its proper trace, these spirits, in

the violence of their motion, run not only into the

trace to which they were more particularly directed,

but into several of those that lie about it. By this

means, they awaken other ideas of the same set,

which immediately determine a new dispatch of

spirits, that in the same manner open other neigh-

bouring traces, till at last the whole set of them is

blown up, and the whole prospect or garden flourishes

in the imagination. But because the pleasure we

receive from these places far surmounted, and over-

came the little disagreeableness we found in them,

for this reason there was at first a wider passage

worn in the pleasure traces, and, on the contrary,

so narrow a one in those which belonged to the dis-

agreeable ideas, that they were quickly stopt up,

and rendered incapable of receiving any animal

spirits, and consequently of exciting any unpleasant

ideas in the memory.

It would be in vain to inquire whether the power

of imagining things strongly proceeds from any

greater perfection in the soul, or from any nicer

texture in the brain of one man than of another.

But this is certain, that a noble writer should be

born with this faculty in its full strength and vigour,

so as to be able to receive lively ideas from outward

objects, to retain them long, and to range them to-

gether upon occasion, in such figures and represen-

tations, as are most likely to hit the fancy of the

reader. A poet should take as much pains in form,

ing his imagination, as a philosopher in cultivating

his understanding. He must gain a due relish of

the works of nature, and be thoroughlv conversant

in the various scenery of a country life.

When he is stored with country images if he

would go beyond pastoral, and the lower kinds of

poetry, he ought to acquaint himself with the pomp

and magnificence of courts. He should be very

well versed in every thing that is noble and stately

in the productions of art, whether it appear in paint-

ing or statuary ; in the great works of architecture

which are in their present glory, or in the ruins of

those which flourished in former ages.

Such advantages as these help to open a man's

thoughts, and to enlarge his imagination, and will

therefore have their influence on all kinds of writing,

if the author knows how to make right use of them.

And among those of the learned languages who excel

in this talent, the most perfect in their several kinds

are perhaps Homer, Virgil, and Ovid. The first

strikes the imagination wonderfully with what is

great, the second with what is beautiful, and the last

with what is strange. Reading the Iliad, is like

travelling through a country uninhabited, where the

fancy is entertained with a thousand savage pros-

pects of vast deserts, wide uncultivated marshes,

huge forests, misshapen rocks and precipices. On

the contrary, the AEneid is like a well-ordered gar-

den, where it is impossible to find out any part un-

adorned, or to cast our eyes upon a single spot that

does not produce some beautiful plant or flower.

But when we are in the Metamorphoses, we are

walking on enchanted ground, and see nothing but

scenes of magic lying around us.

Dies wird wohl  die Theorie zum Skizzieren durch Beschreibung im 19c. Weitere Zitate ( 11 Fortsetzungen) werden folgen.

(G. Lakoff, 1986)

Lakoffs These: Prototypen sind beste Exempel, um abstrakte Kategorien zu verkörpern. Kategorien sind auch idealisierte kognitive Modelle (113-14). In ihnen gehen Bildschemata wie Unten/Oben, Innen/Außen, Vor/Hinter, Teil-Ganzes letztlich auf den menschlichen Körper mit seiner Motorik zurück und führen anderseits über Metaphern und Metonymie zu abstrakteren Kategorien (302-3). Diese Kategorien sind unscharf, ihre Strukturen ergeben aber einen Effekt von mehr oder weniger guten Prototypen.

„Given the various possible category structures, prototype effects can arise in a number of ways.

- Metonymy: Given category B, where A is either a member or subcategory of B, suppose that A metonymically „stands for“ B. That is, it is either a social stereotpe, or typical case, or an ideal, or a sub-model etc. Then A will be a best example of B.

- Radial Category: Given category B with a radial structure and A at its center, then A is the best example of B.

- Generative Category: Suppose B is a category generated by rule from a subcategory or member, A. Then A is the best example of B.

- Graded Category: Given a graded category B with A being a member of degree 1, then A is the best example of B.

Classical Category: Consider a cognitive model containing a feature bundle that characterizes a classical category B. If A has all the properties in the feature bundle, it is the best example of B. An element C, having some of the properties in the feature bundle, may be judged a less-good example of B. …2

These, of course, are „pure“ cases. Mixed cases also exist. Categories of number, for example may have both generators and submodels. In such cases, there is no theory of which kinds of best examples take precedence". (288-89)

Zur Verdeutlichung ein Beispiel. In ihrer Nobelvorlesung erzählte Toni Morrison von einer blinden weisen Frau, die auf die Probe gestellt wird. Ein junger Mann fragt sie, ob der Vogel, den er in der Hand hat, tot oder lebendig sei. Die Frau antwortet: „Ich weiß nicht, ob der Vogel in deiner Hand tot oder lebendig ist, aber ich weiß, dass du ihn in den Händen hältst. Du hast es in der Hand.“ (2022, 167). Offensichtlich verschiebt die weise Frau Bedeutungen von „in den Händen halten“ zu „in der Hand haben.“ Aber beidesmal sind sie Teile (A) eines Ganzen (B). Als ein Körperteil oder Unterkategorie (A) einer (implizierten) „Hand-lung (B).“

- „Hand“ ist metonymisch, steht ambivalent für ein Ganzes. (Original: „It is in your hands.“)

- „Hand“ ist radial. Röhrich listet allein fürs Deutsche 34 sprichwörtliche Redensarten zu „Hand“ auf (1973, 379-85), welche unterschiedliche Sub-Kategorien vom Arbeiten bis zum Rechtsspruch betreffen. A hat eine radiale Struktur und überträgt sie auf das Ganze. In ihrer Auslegung der Parabel unterscheidet Toni Morrisson 3 Handlungen in der Vergangenheit von einer in der Zukunft.

- „Hand“ ist generativ: „Handlung“ komt von Hand. („to act“ von „agere“)

- „Handlung“ ist eine komplexe Kategorie mit vielen Ebenen (physisch, verbal, mental, psychisch), und Hand (A) rangiert ganz oben, kann die anderen mit repräsentieren (to handle“).

- Wie die Redensarten zeigen, ist „Hand“ auch klassisch. Toni Morrison hatte die Erzählung in verschiedenen Kulturen gehört, ein Typ aus Stith Thompsons Taxonomie. Indem Morrison den Vogel als Bild für Sprache interpretierte, begrenzte sie metaphorisch die vielen prototypischen Möglichkeiten, bringt aber zugleich eine komplexe Struktur von Kategorien (Vogel in der Hand) hervor, welche letztlich aus Legenden, Volkserzählungen und Redewendungen stammt. Man kann bestimmte Erzählungen, Geschichten und auch Beschreibungen von Szenen und Situationen als Prototypen verstehen. Wir haben es in der Hand, ob ein Text prototypisch wird (oder bleibt).

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