This will contain a READING LIST (to be updated as I go along) and certain AUTHOR NOTES (sketches left out of the abridged version.
ABSTRACTS:
Prototypes
Prototypes
(G. Lakoff, 1986)
Lakoffs These: Prototypen sind beste Exempel, um abstrakte Kategorien zu verkörpern. Kategorien sind auch idealisierte kognitive Modelle (113-14). In ihnen gehen Bildschemata wie Unten/Oben, Innen/Außen, Vor/Hinter, Teil-Ganzes letztlich auf den menschlichen Körper mit seiner Motorik zurück und führen anderseits über Metaphern und Metonymie zu abstrakteren Kategorien (302-3). Diese Kategorien sind unscharf, ihre Strukturen ergeben aber einen Effekt von mehr oder weniger guten Prototypen.
„Given the various possible category structures, prototype effects can arise in a number of ways.
- Metonymy: Given category B, where A is either a member or subcategory of B, suppose that A metonymically „stands for“ B. That is, it is either a social stereotpe, or typical case, or an ideal, or a sub-model etc. Then A will be a best example of B.
- Radial Category: Given category B with a radial structure and A at its center, then A is the best example of B.
- Generative Category: Suppose B is a category generated by rule from a subcategory or member, A. Then A is the best example of B.
- Graded Category: Given a graded category B with A being a member of degree 1, then A is the best example of B.
Classical Category: Consider a cognitive model containing a feature bundle that characterizes a classical category B. If A has all the properties in the feature bundle, it is the best example of B. An element C, having some of the properties in the feature bundle, may be judged a less-good example of B. …2
These, of course, are „pure“ cases. Mixed cases also exist. Categories of number, for example may have both generators and submodels. In such cases, there is no theory of which kinds of best examples take precedence". (288-89)
Zur Verdeutlichung ein Beispiel. In ihrer Nobelvorlesung erzählte Toni Morrison von einer blinden weisen Frau, die auf die Probe gestellt wird. Ein junger Mann fragt sie, ob der Vogel, den er in der Hand hat, tot oder lebendig sei. Die Frau antwortet: „Ich weiß nicht, ob der Vogel in deiner Hand tot oder lebendig ist, aber ich weiß, dass du ihn in den Händen hältst. Du hast es in der Hand.“ (2022, 167). Offensichtlich verschiebt die weise Frau Bedeutungen von „in den Händen halten“ zu „in der Hand haben.“ Aber beidesmal sind sie Teile (A) eines Ganzen (B). Als ein Körperteil oder Unterkategorie (A) einer (implizierten) „Hand-lung (B).“
- „Hand“ ist metonymisch, steht ambivalent für ein Ganzes. (Original: „It is in your hands.“)
- „Hand“ ist radial. Röhrich listet allein fürs Deutsche 34 sprichwörtliche Redensarten zu „Hand“ auf (1973, 379-85), welche unterschiedliche Sub-Kategorien vom Arbeiten bis zum Rechtsspruch betreffen. A hat eine radiale Struktur und überträgt sie auf das Ganze. In ihrer Auslegung der Parabel unterscheidet Toni Morrisson 3 Handlungen in der Vergangenheit von einer in der Zukunft.
- „Hand“ ist generativ: „Handlung“ komt von Hand. („to act“ von „agere“)
- „Handlung“ ist eine komplexe Kategorie mit vielen Ebenen (physisch, verbal, mental, psychisch), und Hand (A) rangiert ganz oben, kann die anderen mit repräsentieren (to handle“).
- Wie die Redensarten zeigen, ist „Hand“ auch klassisch. Toni Morrison hatte die Erzählung in verschiedenen Kulturen gehört, ein Typ aus Stith Thompsons Taxonomie. Indem Morrison den Vogel als Bild für Sprache interpretierte, begrenzte sie metaphorisch die vielen prototypischen Möglichkeiten, bringt aber zugleich eine komplexe Struktur von Kategorien (Vogel in der Hand) hervor, welche letztlich aus Legenden, Volkserzählungen und Redewendungen stammt. Man kann bestimmte Erzählungen, Geschichten und auch Beschreibungen von Szenen und Situationen als Prototypen verstehen. Wir haben es in der Hand, ob ein Text prototypisch wird (oder bleibt).
Addison: IMAGINATION AND THE BRAIN (1712)
Addison Pleasures of Imagination in Writing Spectator (417)
Addison's theory of imagination derives from J. Locke, who distinguished simple from complex ideas, deriving the latter from the
former. Addison held that our pleasure, say in a landscape sketch, comes from comparing the object (Mallorca) with its representation
(the postcard or a written sketch). He attempted a neurological explanation, anticipating cognitive semantics. My full discussion will come in chapter 2.
We may observe, that any single circumstance of
what we have formerly seen often raises up a whole
scene of imagery, and awakens numberless ideas
that before slept in the imagination ; such a parti-
cular smell or colour is able to fill the mind, on a
sudden, with the picture of the fields or gardens
where we first met with it, and to bring up into
view all the variety of images that once attended it.
Our imagination takes the hint, and leads us unex-
pectedly into cities or theatres, plains or meadows.
We may further observe, when the fancy thus re-
flects on the scenes that have passed in it formerly,
those which were at first pleasant to behold appear
more so upon reflection, and that the memory
heightens the delightfulness of the original. A
Cartesian would account for both these instances in
the following manner : —
The set of ideas which we received from such a
prospect or garden, having entered the mind at the
same time, have a set of traces, belonging to them
in the brain, bordering very near upon one another;
when, therefore, any one of these ideas arises in
the imagination, and consequently dispatches a flow
of animal spirits to its proper trace, these spirits, in
the violence of their motion, run not only into the
trace to which they were more particularly directed,
but into several of those that lie about it. By this
means, they awaken other ideas of the same set,
which immediately determine a new dispatch of
spirits, that in the same manner open other neigh-
bouring traces, till at last the whole set of them is
blown up, and the whole prospect or garden flourishes
in the imagination. But because the pleasure we
receive from these places far surmounted, and over-
came the little disagreeableness we found in them,
for this reason there was at first a wider passage
worn in the pleasure traces, and, on the contrary,
so narrow a one in those which belonged to the dis-
agreeable ideas, that they were quickly stopt up,
and rendered incapable of receiving any animal
spirits, and consequently of exciting any unpleasant
ideas in the memory.
It would be in vain to inquire whether the power
of imagining things strongly proceeds from any
greater perfection in the soul, or from any nicer
texture in the brain of one man than of another.
But this is certain, that a noble writer should be
born with this faculty in its full strength and vigour,
so as to be able to receive lively ideas from outward
objects, to retain them long, and to range them to-
gether upon occasion, in such figures and represen-
tations, as are most likely to hit the fancy of the
reader. A poet should take as much pains in form,
ing his imagination, as a philosopher in cultivating
his understanding. He must gain a due relish of
the works of nature, and be thoroughlv conversant
in the various scenery of a country life.
When he is stored with country images if he
would go beyond pastoral, and the lower kinds of
poetry, he ought to acquaint himself with the pomp
and magnificence of courts. He should be very
well versed in every thing that is noble and stately
in the productions of art, whether it appear in paint-
ing or statuary ; in the great works of architecture
which are in their present glory, or in the ruins of
those which flourished in former ages.
Such advantages as these help to open a man's
thoughts, and to enlarge his imagination, and will
therefore have their influence on all kinds of writing,
if the author knows how to make right use of them.
And among those of the learned languages who excel
in this talent, the most perfect in their several kinds
are perhaps Homer, Virgil, and Ovid. The first
strikes the imagination wonderfully with what is
great, the second with what is beautiful, and the last
with what is strange. Reading the Iliad, is like
travelling through a country uninhabited, where the
fancy is entertained with a thousand savage pros-
pects of vast deserts, wide uncultivated marshes,
huge forests, misshapen rocks and precipices. On
the contrary, the AEneid is like a well-ordered gar-
den, where it is impossible to find out any part un-
adorned, or to cast our eyes upon a single spot that
does not produce some beautiful plant or flower.
But when we are in the Metamorphoses, we are
walking on enchanted ground, and see nothing but
scenes of magic lying around us.
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